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.agents/skills/code-changes/SKILL.md
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---
name: code-changes
description: >
Orchestration workflow for any task that ends in code changes: issue analysis, pull request
review, feature implementation, bug fixes, refactors, or fleshing out an idea. MUST be invoked
at the start of such a task, before reading or writing any code. Defines how to analyze first,
gate on user approval, plan, pick the right executor model, delegate and supervise subagents,
verify, and deliver.
Orchestration workflow for any task that ends in code changes: issue analysis, pull request review, feature
implementation, bug fixes, refactors, or fleshing out an idea. MUST be invoked at the start of such a task, before
reading or writing any code. Defines how to analyze first, gate on user approval, plan, pick the right executor model,
delegate and supervise subagents, verify, and deliver.
---
# Code Changes
The workflow for going from an issue, pull request, idea, or feature request to shipped code.
Follow the phases in order. Analysis always comes first; code comes last.
The workflow for going from an issue, pull request, idea, or feature request to shipped code. Follow the phases in
order. Analysis always comes first; code comes last.
Each phase has a reference file with the full instructions. **Read the reference file when you
enter the phase** — not before, and never skip it because the phase "looks obvious".
Each phase has a reference file with the full instructions. **Read the reference file when you enter the phase** — not
before, and never skip it because the phase "looks obvious".
## Roles
Assign work based on model capability. The coordinator is not the strongest model — it's the one
that stays resident, owns every phase by default, and knows when it's out of its depth.
Assign work based on model capability. The coordinator is not the strongest model — it's the one that stays resident,
owns every phase by default, and knows when it's out of its depth.
| Role | Capability tier | Owns |
| ----------- | -------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| Coordinator | Capable mid-tier, resident for the whole task | Analysis, plan, delegation, supervision, verification, delivery — by default |
| Escalation | Strongest reasoning model available; invoked only on trigger | The specific judgment call the coordinator flagged, then control returns |
| Implementer | Same tier as coordinator, or smaller for trivial edits | Executing one pinned, self-contained task |
- **Role:** Coordinator
- **Capability tier:** Capable mid-tier, resident for the whole task
- **Owns:** Analysis, plan, delegation, supervision, verification, delivery — by default
Concrete model names per vendor (Anthropic, OpenAI, Google) and how to run the split in Claude
Code, GitHub Copilot, Codex, or IDE agents: [references/model-tiers.md](references/model-tiers.md).
- **Role:** Escalation
- **Capability tier:** Strongest reasoning model available; invoked only on trigger
- **Owns:** The specific judgment call the coordinator flagged, then control returns
When the current agent already runs at implementer tier, there's no separate delegation step for
standard work: plan and execute directly, still following every phase. Escalate to the strongest
model only when a trigger fires — see [references/escalate.md](references/escalate.md) — never by
default and never for a routine judgment call the coordinator is equipped to make itself.
- **Role:** Implementer
- **Capability tier:** Same tier as coordinator, or smaller for trivial edits
- **Owns:** Executing one pinned, self-contained task
Concrete model names per vendor (Anthropic, OpenAI, Google) and how to run the split in Claude Code, GitHub Copilot,
Codex, or IDE agents: [references/model-tiers.md](references/model-tiers.md).
When the current agent already runs at implementer tier, there's no separate delegation step for standard work: plan and
execute directly, still following every phase. Escalate to the strongest model only when a trigger fires — see
[references/escalate.md](references/escalate.md) — never by default and never for a routine judgment call the
coordinator is equipped to make itself.
## The flow
1. **Analyze** ([references/analyze.md](references/analyze.md)) — root cause and scope,
validated against the code, never against the report alone.
2. **Plan** ([references/plan.md](references/plan.md)) — pinned spec, task split, parallel vs
sequential, workspace per task.
3. **Delegate** ([references/delegate.md](references/delegate.md)) — match each task to the
right executor, coordinator-tier by default.
4. **Supervise** ([references/supervise.md](references/supervise.md)) — monitor, unblock, and
critically review implementer output.
5. **Verify** ([references/verify.md](references/verify.md)) — quality gates plus functional
proof, never delegated downward.
6. **Deliver** ([references/deliver.md](references/deliver.md)) — conventional commits and an
outcome-first report.
1. **Analyze** ([references/analyze.md](references/analyze.md)) — root cause and scope, validated against the code,
never against the report alone.
2. **Plan** ([references/plan.md](references/plan.md)) — pinned spec, task split, parallel vs sequential, workspace per
task.
3. **Delegate** ([references/delegate.md](references/delegate.md)) — match each task to the right executor,
coordinator-tier by default.
4. **Supervise** ([references/supervise.md](references/supervise.md)) — monitor, unblock, and critically review
implementer output.
5. **Verify** ([references/verify.md](references/verify.md)) — quality gates plus functional proof, never delegated
downward.
6. **Deliver** ([references/deliver.md](references/deliver.md)) — conventional commits and an outcome-first report.
Analyze, Supervise, and Verify each carry an escalation checkpoint — see
[references/escalate.md](references/escalate.md) — for handing one specific judgment call to the
strongest available model without giving up ownership of the phase.
[references/escalate.md](references/escalate.md) — for handing one specific judgment call to the strongest available
model without giving up ownership of the phase.
**Stop gate:** Phase 1 ends with reporting the analysis and proposed approach to the user and
waiting for a go. Skip the gate only when the user already gave the go in the request itself
("do it", "fix it and commit", "implement with Sonnet").
**Stop gate:** Phase 1 ends with reporting the analysis and proposed approach to the user and waiting for a go. Skip the
gate only when the user already gave the go in the request itself ("do it", "fix it and commit", "implement with
Sonnet").
## Special cases
These entry points replace or extend Phase 1; the rest of the flow applies unchanged.
- Pull request review comments →
[references/pr-review-comments.md](references/pr-review-comments.md)
- Pull request review comments → [references/pr-review-comments.md](references/pr-review-comments.md)
- Issue triage → [references/issue-triage.md](references/issue-triage.md)
.agents/skills/code-changes/references/delegate.md
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# Phase 3 — Delegate
Match the executor to the task, not the other way around. The point is cost and speed without
losing quality — the coordinator stays accountable for the result.
Match the executor to the task, not the other way around. The point is cost and speed without losing quality — the
coordinator stays accountable for the result.
## Executor matrix
Tier definitions and per-vendor model examples: [model-tiers.md](model-tiers.md).
| Task profile | Executor |
| ---------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------ |
| Trivial: mechanical edit, config tweak, typo, doc update | Do it directly, or batch on a trivial-tier model |
| Standard, well-specified implementation | Coordinator itself, or a same-tier subagent for parallelism |
| Hits an escalation trigger (see [escalate.md](escalate.md)) | Escalation-tier subagent, for that one specific question |
- **Task profile:** Trivial: mechanical edit, config tweak, typo, doc update
- **Executor:** Do it directly, or batch on a trivial-tier model
- The coordinator typically runs at implementer tier itself, so standard tasks are usually
executed directly rather than delegated. Delegate anyway when there's real parallelism —
independent tasks, each in its own worktree — or to shed trivial mechanical work onto a
cheaper model.
- Escalation is never the default path for "ambiguous" or "architectural" — it fires only on the
concrete triggers in [escalate.md](escalate.md), and only for the specific question, not the
whole task.
- **Task profile:** Standard, well-specified implementation
- **Executor:** Coordinator itself, or a same-tier subagent for parallelism
- **Task profile:** Hits an escalation trigger (see [escalate.md](escalate.md))
- **Executor:** Escalation-tier subagent, for that one specific question
- The coordinator typically runs at implementer tier itself, so standard tasks are usually executed directly rather than
delegated. Delegate anyway when there's real parallelism — independent tasks, each in its own worktree — or to shed
trivial mechanical work onto a cheaper model.
- Escalation is never the default path for "ambiguous" or "architectural" — it fires only on the concrete triggers in
[escalate.md](escalate.md), and only for the specific question, not the whole task.
## What a delegation carries
@@ -27,16 +28,14 @@ Hand the subagent its full pinned spec from Phase 2, plus:
- The verification commands it must run and pass before reporting done.
- The instruction to report what it changed and what it verified — not just "done".
- The instruction to stop and report when it hits something the spec does not cover, instead of
improvising scope.
- The instruction to stop and report when it hits something the spec does not cover, instead of improvising scope.
## What is never delegated downward
Analysis, final verification, and delivery never go to an implementer — they stay with the
coordinator or go up to Escalation tier for a specific question:
Analysis, final verification, and delivery never go to an implementer — they stay with the coordinator or go up to
Escalation tier for a specific question:
- Analysis and root-cause work (Phase 1).
- Final verification (Phase 5) — an implementer's green run is a claim, not a result.
- Commits, history rewrites, pushes, and user-facing reporting (Phase 6) — these stay with the
coordinator regardless of tier; they're about accountability, not capability, so they never go
to Escalation tier either.
- Commits, history rewrites, pushes, and user-facing reporting (Phase 6) — these stay with the coordinator regardless of
tier; they're about accountability, not capability, so they never go to Escalation tier either.
.agents/skills/code-changes/references/model-tiers.md
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# Model tiers and agent tooling
The workflow talks about capability tiers, not vendor names. Map whatever stack is in use onto
these four tiers. The model names below are a mid-2026 snapshot — they go stale; when a name no
longer exists, map its replacement by tier, not by nostalgia.
The workflow talks about capability tiers, not vendor names. Map whatever stack is in use onto these four tiers. The
model names below are a mid-2026 snapshot — they go stale; when a name no longer exists, map its replacement by tier,
not by nostalgia.
## The four tiers
| Tier | Role | Anthropic | OpenAI | Google |
| ----------- | ------------------------------------------- | ----------------- | ----------------- | ----------------- |
| Escalation | Judgment calls the coordinator flags | Fable 5, Opus 4.8 | Sol, GPT-5 (high) | Gemini 2.5 Pro |
| Coordinator | Resident; owns every phase by default | Sonnet 5 | GPT-5, GPT-4.1 | Gemini 2.5 Flash |
| Implementer | Pinned-spec work, often same tier as coordinator | Sonnet 5 | GPT-5, GPT-4.1 | Gemini 2.5 Flash |
| Trivial | Mechanical edits | Haiku 4.5 | GPT-4.1 mini | Gemini Flash-Lite |
- **Tier:** Escalation
- **Role:** Judgment calls the coordinator flags
- **Anthropic:** Fable 5, Opus 4.8
- **OpenAI:** Sol, GPT-5 (high)
- **Google:** Gemini 2.5 Pro
- **Escalation** — the strongest reasoning model available, called only when a trigger in
[escalate.md](escalate.md) fires: unclear root cause, architectural risk, security sensitivity,
an irreversible operation, repeated spec gaps, or low confidence in a review. Answers one
specific question, then hands control back to the coordinator.
- **Coordinator** — a capable mid-tier model, resident for the whole task. Owns analysis,
planning, supervision, and verification by default. It's capable enough for the large majority
of work, and cheap enough relative to Escalation tier that most tasks never need to call up at
all — that's the point of the split.
- **Implementer** — often literally the same model as the coordinator; the distinction is
parallelism and workspace isolation, not capability. Falls back to a smaller model for batches
of mechanical, unambiguous edits.
- **Trivial** — small, very fast models for mechanical, unambiguous edits: renames, config
tweaks, typo fixes, doc touch-ups. Batch several to amortize the dispatch overhead. When in
doubt between trivial and implementer, pick implementer — a wrong cheap edit costs more than
the price difference.
- **Tier:** Coordinator
- **Role:** Resident; owns every phase by default
- **Anthropic:** Sonnet 5
- **OpenAI:** GPT-5, GPT-4.1
- **Google:** Gemini 2.5 Flash
- **Tier:** Implementer
- **Role:** Pinned-spec work, often same tier as coordinator
- **Anthropic:** Sonnet 5
- **OpenAI:** GPT-5, GPT-4.1
- **Google:** Gemini 2.5 Flash
- **Tier:** Trivial
- **Role:** Mechanical edits
- **Anthropic:** Haiku 4.5
- **OpenAI:** GPT-4.1 mini
- **Google:** Gemini Flash-Lite
- **Escalation** — the strongest reasoning model available, called only when a trigger in [escalate.md](escalate.md)
fires: unclear root cause, architectural risk, security sensitivity, an irreversible operation, repeated spec gaps, or
low confidence in a review. Answers one specific question, then hands control back to the coordinator.
- **Coordinator** — a capable mid-tier model, resident for the whole task. Owns analysis, planning, supervision, and
verification by default. It's capable enough for the large majority of work, and cheap enough relative to Escalation
tier that most tasks never need to call up at all — that's the point of the split.
- **Implementer** — often literally the same model as the coordinator; the distinction is parallelism and workspace
isolation, not capability. Falls back to a smaller model for batches of mechanical, unambiguous edits.
- **Trivial** — small, very fast models for mechanical, unambiguous edits: renames, config tweaks, typo fixes, doc
touch-ups. Batch several to amortize the dispatch overhead. When in doubt between trivial and implementer, pick
implementer — a wrong cheap edit costs more than the price difference.
## Tooling mappings
How to run the coordinator/escalation/implementer split in common agent tooling:
- **Claude Code** — run the session itself on a coordinator-tier model (e.g. Sonnet 5). Call
`Agent` with `model: opus` (or `fable`) only at an escalation checkpoint, scoped to the one
question that triggered it. Use worktree isolation for parallel implementer-tier tasks, and
`model: haiku` for batched trivial edits.
- **GitHub Copilot** — run Copilot Chat on a coordinator-tier model for the whole flow; switch the
model picker to the strongest reasoning model only for the specific question an escalation
trigger flagged, then switch back. Standalone, well-specified tasks can still be assigned to the
Copilot coding agent (assign the issue or PR to Copilot), which works on its own branch — the
pinned spec becomes the issue body.
- **Codex** — orchestrate locally (CLI or chat) on a coordinator-tier model; dispatch each pinned
spec as a Codex cloud task, one task per independent unit, and review the resulting diffs
yourself, escalating to the frontier model only when a trigger fires.
- **Cursor and similar IDE agents** — one composer/agent session per task on a coordinator-tier
model; background agents for the parallel implementer-tier ones; switch to the strongest model
in-session only for an escalation checkpoint, then switch back.
- **Claude Code** — run the session itself on a coordinator-tier model (e.g. Sonnet 5). Call `Agent` with `model: opus`
(or `fable`) only at an escalation checkpoint, scoped to the one question that triggered it. Use worktree isolation
for parallel implementer-tier tasks, and `model: haiku` for batched trivial edits.
- **GitHub Copilot** — run Copilot Chat on a coordinator-tier model for the whole flow; switch the model picker to the
strongest reasoning model only for the specific question an escalation trigger flagged, then switch back. Standalone,
well-specified tasks can still be assigned to the Copilot coding agent (assign the issue or PR to Copilot), which
works on its own branch — the pinned spec becomes the issue body.
- **Codex** — orchestrate locally (CLI or chat) on a coordinator-tier model; dispatch each pinned spec as a Codex cloud
task, one task per independent unit, and review the resulting diffs yourself, escalating to the frontier model only
when a trigger fires.
- **Cursor and similar IDE agents** — one composer/agent session per task on a coordinator-tier model; background agents
for the parallel implementer-tier ones; switch to the strongest model in-session only for an escalation checkpoint,
then switch back.
**No subagent support at all?** Keep the phases, drop the parallelism: run the whole flow on a
coordinator-tier model, and switch the session model up to the strongest one only for the specific
question an escalation trigger flagged, then switch back down. The discipline transfers even when
the delegation mechanism does not.
**No subagent support at all?** Keep the phases, drop the parallelism: run the whole flow on a coordinator-tier model,
and switch the session model up to the strongest one only for the specific question an escalation trigger flagged, then
switch back down. The discipline transfers even when the delegation mechanism does not.
.agents/skills/code-changes/references/supervise.md
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- Watch for spec-compliant-but-ugly: a change can satisfy the letter of the spec and still not
belong in the codebase. Consistency with surrounding code wins.
## Review added tests critically
A passing test suite is not the same as a useful one. Subagents asked to add tests tend to
over-produce; cut any that:
- Assert an implementation detail instead of behavior (pointer/memory identity to prove a fast
path ran, exact allocation counts, internal call order) — a legitimate refactor can break these
with no real regression.
- Pin a large, hardcoded snapshot that just mirrors data already declared elsewhere in the same
diff (copying a map's keys into a literal list and asserting equality duplicates the source
instead of independently verifying it, and becomes pure maintenance burden on every future
change to that data).
- Duplicate an invariant a leaner test in the same diff already covers under a different name.
Keep the tests that exercise the actual behavior or invariant the change is supposed to
guarantee — one assertion per property, not one assertion per implementation choice.
## Escalate on low confidence
If a diff leaves you unsure whether the fix is correct or merely plausible, or it touches
.agents/skills/golang/SKILL.md
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#### Table-driven tests are the default
One behavior under test = one test function with a table of cases. Never write several
near-identical test functions that differ only in input data, fixtures, or expected outcome —
near-identical test functions that differ in input data, fixtures, or expected outcome, because
those differences are table fields. A per-case fixture (a different map, config, or mock return)
is not a reason to split; put the fixture in the table. Shared setup (mocks, caches, `Init`
calls) runs once before the loop.
@@ -296,7 +296,7 @@ calls) runs once before the loop.
When adding cases to an existing test file, extend the existing table instead of adding a new
test function.
Only split into separate test functions when the flow genuinely differs: a different API under
Split into separate test functions when the flow genuinely differs: a different API under
test, or a setup/assertion sequence that cannot be expressed as table fields.
```go
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/README.md
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# Writing Clearly and Concisely
A skill that applies William Strunk Jr.'s timeless writing principles to produce clearer, stronger, more professional prose while avoiding common AI writing patterns.
A skill that applies William Strunk Jr.'s timeless writing principles to produce clearer, stronger, more professional
prose while avoiding common AI writing patterns.
## Purpose
@@ -9,7 +10,8 @@ This skill helps you write better prose for human readers. It draws from two sou
1. **The Elements of Style** (Strunk, 1918) - Time-tested rules for clear, forceful writing
2. **AI Pattern Avoidance** - Research-backed guidance on avoiding generic, puffy language that LLMs tend to produce
Whether you're writing documentation, commit messages, error messages, or any text humans will read, this skill helps you cut fluff and say what you mean.
Whether you're writing documentation, commit messages, error messages, or any text humans will read, this skill helps
you cut fluff and say what you mean.
## When to Use
@@ -23,6 +25,7 @@ Use this skill whenever you write prose for humans:
- **Editing** - Improving clarity of existing text
**Trigger phrases:**
- "Write documentation for..."
- "Draft a README"
- "Edit this for clarity"
@@ -50,16 +53,16 @@ For tight context situations, dispatch a subagent with your draft and the releva
### Strunk's Core Rules
The skill emphasizes these principles from *The Elements of Style*:
The skill emphasizes these principles from _The Elements of Style_:
| Rule | Principle |
|------|-----------|
| 10 | Use active voice |
| 11 | Put statements in positive form |
| 12 | Use definite, specific, concrete language |
| 13 | Omit needless words |
| 16 | Keep related words together |
| 18 | Place emphatic words at end of sentence |
| Rule | Principle |
| ---- | ----------------------------------------- |
| 10 | Use active voice |
| 11 | Put statements in positive form |
| 12 | Use definite, specific, concrete language |
| 13 | Omit needless words |
| 16 | Keep related words together |
| 18 | Place emphatic words at end of sentence |
### AI Pattern Detection
@@ -73,46 +76,73 @@ The skill identifies and eliminates common LLM writing patterns:
## Reference Files
| Section | File | Tokens | Content |
|---------|------|--------|---------|
| Grammar & punctuation | `02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md` | ~2,500 | Comma rules, possessives, sentence structure |
| Composition principles | `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` | ~4,500 | Active voice, concision, paragraph structure |
| Formatting | `04-a-few-matters-of-form.md` | ~1,000 | Headings, quotations, formatting conventions |
| Word choice | `05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md` | ~4,000 | Common errors, word selection |
| AI patterns | `signs-of-ai-writing.md` | ~25,000 | Wikipedia editors' field guide to AI detection |
- **Section:** Grammar & punctuation
- **File:** `02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md`
- **Tokens:** ~2,500
- **Content:** Comma rules, possessives, sentence structure
- **Section:** Composition principles
- **File:** `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md`
- **Tokens:** ~4,500
- **Content:** Active voice, concision, paragraph structure
- **Section:** Formatting
- **File:** `04-a-few-matters-of-form.md`
- **Tokens:** ~1,000
- **Content:** Headings, quotations, formatting conventions
- **Section:** Word choice
- **File:** `05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md`
- **Tokens:** ~4,000
- **Content:** Common errors, word selection
- **Section:** AI patterns
- **File:** `signs-of-ai-writing.md`
- **Tokens:** ~25,000
- **Content:** Wikipedia editors' field guide to AI detection
## Usage Examples
### Example 1: Tightening a Commit Message
**Before:**
> This commit implements the functionality for ensuring that user authentication is properly handled, showcasing robust error handling capabilities.
> This commit implements the functionality for ensuring that user authentication is properly handled, showcasing robust
> error handling capabilities.
**After:**
> Add user authentication with error handling
### Example 2: Rewriting Documentation
**Before:**
> This groundbreaking feature leverages cutting-edge technology to deliver a seamless experience, fostering better engagement and driving impactful results.
> This groundbreaking feature leverages cutting-edge technology to deliver a seamless experience, fostering better
> engagement and driving impactful results.
**After:**
> This feature uses WebSocket connections to update the dashboard in real time.
### Example 3: Fixing Passive Voice
**Before:**
> The configuration file is read by the application at startup.
**After:**
> The application reads the configuration file at startup.
### Example 4: Removing Hedging
**Before:**
> It is important to note that the API might potentially return an error in certain situations.
**After:**
> The API returns an error when the token expires.
## Best Practices
@@ -126,7 +156,7 @@ The skill identifies and eliminates common LLM writing patterns:
## Directory Structure
```
```text
writing-clearly-and-concisely/
SKILL.md # Main skill definition
README.md # This file
@@ -142,16 +172,17 @@ writing-clearly-and-concisely/
## Installation
**Claude Code:**
```bash
cp -r skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely ~/.claude/skills/
```
**Claude.ai:**
Add the skill to project knowledge or paste SKILL.md contents into your conversation.
**Claude.ai:** Add the skill to project knowledge or paste SKILL.md contents into your conversation.
## Attribution
- Original skill by @joshuadavidthomas from [joshuadavidthomas/agent-skills](https://github.com/joshuadavidthomas/agent-skills) (MIT)
- Original skill by @joshuadavidthomas from
[joshuadavidthomas/agent-skills](https://github.com/joshuadavidthomas/agent-skills) (MIT)
- Adapted from [obra/the-elements-of-style](https://github.com/obra/the-elements-of-style)
- Writing principles from *The Elements of Style* by William Strunk Jr. (1918)
- Writing principles from _The Elements of Style_ by William Strunk Jr. (1918)
- AI pattern research from Wikipedia's field guide to AI-generated content detection
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/SKILL.md
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@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
---
name: writing-clearly-and-concisely
description: Apply whenever writing content a human will read — emails, documents, reports, documentation, messages, UI copy, commit messages, explanations, or any other prose. Applies Strunk's timeless rules for clearer, stronger, more professional writing.
description:
Apply whenever writing content a human will read — emails, documents, reports, documentation, messages, UI copy,
commit messages, explanations, or any other prose. Applies Strunk's timeless rules for clearer, stronger, more
professional writing.
---
# Writing Clearly and Concisely
@@ -34,7 +37,7 @@ Loading a single section (~1,000-4,500 tokens) instead of everything saves signi
## Elements of Style
William Strunk Jr.'s *The Elements of Style* (1918) teaches you to write clearly and cut ruthlessly.
William Strunk Jr.'s _The Elements of Style_ (1918) teaches you to write clearly and cut ruthlessly.
### Rules
@@ -50,30 +53,31 @@ William Strunk Jr.'s *The Elements of Style* (1918) teaches you to write clearly
**Elementary Principles of Composition**:
8. One paragraph per topic
9. Begin paragraph with topic sentence
10. **Use active voice**
11. **Put statements in positive form**
12. **Use definite, specific, concrete language**
13. **Omit needless words**
14. Avoid succession of loose sentences
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form
16. **Keep related words together**
17. Keep to one tense in summaries
18. **Place emphatic words at end of sentence**
1. One paragraph per topic
2. Begin paragraph with topic sentence
3. **Use active voice**
4. **Put statements in positive form**
5. **Use definite, specific, concrete language**
6. **Omit needless words**
7. Avoid succession of loose sentences
8. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form
9. **Keep related words together**
10. Keep to one tense in summaries
11. **Place emphatic words at end of sentence**
### Reference Files
The rules above are summarized from Strunk's original text. For complete explanations with examples:
| Section | File | ~Tokens |
|---------|------|---------|
| Grammar, punctuation, comma rules | `02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md` | 2,500 |
| Paragraph structure, active voice, concision | `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` | 4,500 |
| Headings, quotations, formatting | `04-a-few-matters-of-form.md` | 1,000 |
| Word choice, common errors | `05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md` | 4,000 |
| Section | File | ~Tokens |
| -------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------- | ------- |
| Grammar, punctuation, comma rules | `02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md` | 2,500 |
| Paragraph structure, active voice, concision | `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` | 4,500 |
| Headings, quotations, formatting | `04-a-few-matters-of-form.md` | 1,000 |
| Word choice, common errors | `05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md` | 4,000 |
**Most tasks need only `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md`** — it covers active voice, positive form, concrete language, and omitting needless words.
**Most tasks need only `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md`** — it covers active voice, positive form, concrete
language, and omitting needless words.
## AI Writing Patterns to Avoid
@@ -88,8 +92,10 @@ LLMs regress to statistical means, producing generic, puffy prose. Avoid:
Be specific, not grandiose. Say what it actually does.
For comprehensive research on why these patterns occur, see `signs-of-ai-writing.md`. Wikipedia editors developed this guide to detect AI-generated submissions — their patterns are well-documented and field-tested.
For comprehensive research on why these patterns occur, see `signs-of-ai-writing.md`. Wikipedia editors developed this
guide to detect AI-generated submissions — their patterns are well-documented and field-tested.
## Bottom Line
Writing for humans? Load the relevant section from `elements-of-style/` and apply the rules. For most tasks, `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` covers what matters most.
Writing for humans? Load the relevant section from `elements-of-style/` and apply the rules. For most tasks,
`03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` covers what matters most.
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/elements-of-style/01-introductory.md
+4 -2
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@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
## I. Introductory
# I. Introductory
This handbook summarizes the essentials of plain English style. It focuses on the rules of usage and principles of composition most often broken, offering a compact alternative to exhaustive manuals. Master the guidance here, then look to the best authors for finer points of style.
This handbook summarizes the essentials of plain English style. It focuses on the rules of usage and principles of
composition most often broken, offering a compact alternative to exhaustive manuals. Master the guidance here, then look
to the best authors for finer points of style.
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/elements-of-style/02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md
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@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
## II. Elementary Rules Of Usage
# II. Elementary Rules Of Usage
### Rule 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.
## Rule 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,
@@ -12,7 +12,9 @@ the witch's malice
This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names ending in *-es* and *-is*, the possessive *Jesus'*, and such forms as *for conscience' sake*, *for righteousness' sake*. But such forms as *Achilles' heel*, *Moses' laws*, *Isis' temple* are commonly replaced by
Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names ending in _-es_ and _-is_, the possessive _Jesus'_, and such forms
as _for conscience' sake_, _for righteousness' sake_. But such forms as _Achilles' heel_, _Moses' laws_, _Isis' temple_
are commonly replaced by
the heel of Achilles
@@ -20,9 +22,9 @@ the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives *hers*, *its*, *theirs*, *yours*, and *oneself* have no apostrophe.
The pronominal possessives _hers_, _its_, _theirs_, _yours_, and _oneself_ have no apostrophe.
### Rule 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
## Rule 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last
Thus write,
@@ -38,11 +40,14 @@ In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as,
Brown, Shipley & Co.
### Rule 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
## Rule 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as *however*, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one comma and omit the other. Such punctuation as
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as _however_, or a brief
phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely
omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one comma and omit the
other. Such punctuation as
Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,
@@ -56,7 +61,8 @@ If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.
Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between comma and period) are the following:
Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between comma
and period) are the following:
\(1\) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day of the month, when following the day of the week:
@@ -66,13 +72,17 @@ April 6, 1917.
Monday, November 11, 1918.
\(2\) the abbreviations *etc.* and *jr.*
\(2\) the abbreviations _etc._ and _jr._
\(3\) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place.
\(3\) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and
similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.
In this sentence the clause introduced by *which* does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant; what audience is in question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. The sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have been made independently:
In this sentence the clause introduced by _which_ does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant;
what audience is in question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement
supplementing that in the main clause. The sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have been
made independently:
The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and more interested.
@@ -80,7 +90,8 @@ Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas, in the sentence,
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.
Here the clause introduced by *who* does serve to tell which of several possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be split up into two independent statements.
Here the clause introduced by _who_ does serve to tell which of several possible candidates is meant; the sentence
cannot be split up into two independent statements.
The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is based on the same principle:
@@ -88,23 +99,29 @@ Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is a few m
The day will come when you will admit your mistake.
Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic. The *day* spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is therefore restrictive.
Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and
parenthetic. The _day_ spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is therefore restrictive.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases
or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence.
Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.
Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank
with the possession of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.
Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18.
The writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by commas: see under Rule 5.
### Rule 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.
## Rule 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought. Further, *and* is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense
when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought. Further, _and_ is the least specific
of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining
that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
@@ -112,33 +129,45 @@ Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be
reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence
prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the
type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his
sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by *as* (in the sense of *because*), *for*, *or*, *nor*, and *while* (in the sense of *and at the same time*) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by _as_ (in the sense of _because_), _for_, _or_, _nor_, and
_while_ (in the sense of _and at the same time_) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.
If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives *so* and *yet* may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of *so* (equivalent to *accordingly* or to *so that*) are somewhat colloquial and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word *so* and begin the first clause with *as* or *since*:
If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives
_so_ and _yet_ may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be
co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of _so_ (equivalent
to _accordingly_ or to _so that_) are somewhat colloquial and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple
correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word _so_ and begin the first clause with _as_ or _since_:
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about. | As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about. |
- **Original:** I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about.
- **Revision:** As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent
clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.
When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is required if the connective is *but*. If the connective is *and*, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate.
When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is required if the connective is
_but_. If the connective is _and_, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or
immediate.
I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
### Rule 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
## Rule 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence,
the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.
@@ -156,11 +185,17 @@ Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence.
A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the
examples given, better than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a
way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed it
may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of
composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as *accordingly*, *besides*, *then*, *therefore*, or *thus*, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as _accordingly_, _besides_, _then_, _therefore_, or
_thus_, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually
permissible:
Man proposes, God disposes.
@@ -170,9 +205,10 @@ Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or consequence. Als
I hardly knew him, he was so changed,
a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter.
a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue
of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter.
### Rule 6. Do not break sentences in two.
## Rule 6. Do not break sentences in two
In other words, do not use periods for commas.
@@ -180,32 +216,43 @@ I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to Ne
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small
letter.
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it
accordingly:
Again and again he called out. No reply.
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in punctuation.
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder
in syntax or in punctuation.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so
thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature.
### Rule 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.
## Rule 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.
The word *walking* refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence:
The word _walking_ refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the
woman, he must recast the sentence:
He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective
phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. | When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. |
| A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the city. | A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city. |
| Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. | Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. |
| Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. | Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible. |
- **Original:** On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
- **Revision:** When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
- **Original:** A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the city.
- **Revision:** A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city.
- **Original:** Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me.
- **Revision:** Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.
- **Original:** Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible.
- **Revision:** Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible.
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/elements-of-style/03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md
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@@ -1,12 +1,19 @@
## III. Elementary Principles Of Composition
# III. Elementary Principles Of Composition
### Rule 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.
## Rule 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic
If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it.
If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no
need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a
single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best
written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not
improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a
paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of
each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem
might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:
- A. Account of the work.
- B. Critical discussion.
@@ -21,7 +28,11 @@ A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of seven pa
- F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
- G. Relationship to other works.
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined
circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline
its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a
concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or
would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.
A novel might be discussed under the heads:
@@ -36,15 +47,22 @@ An historical event might be discussed under the heads:
- B. Account of the event.
- C. What the event led up to.
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of
the topics here given.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated briefly.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of
transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions are also
necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated briefly.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with
each change of speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from
examples in well-printed works of fiction.
### Rule 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.
## Rule 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning
Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which
Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each
paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally
useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which
\(a\) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
@@ -54,19 +72,52 @@ Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables hi
Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to be avoided.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (*again*; *therefore*; *for the same reason*) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the
whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (_again_; _therefore_; _for the
same reason_) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more
sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart
the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.
According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes.
According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in
one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other
forms, by defining its terms, by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish
it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out
several of these processes.
1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 “I cannot see the wit,” says Hazlitt, “of walking and talking at the same time. 7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country,” which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.—Stevenson, Walking Tours.
1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it
is no longer a walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking
tour should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop and go on, and
follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a
champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take
colour from what you see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 “I cannot see the wit,” says Hazlitt,
“of walking and talking at the same time. 7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country,” which is the
gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the
meditative silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine
intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain,
and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.—Stevenson, Walking Tours.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third (“you must have your own pace”) made clearer by denying the contrary. 4 A fourth reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still another form. 6–7 The same reason as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition, in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form,
and supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third (“you must have your own pace”) made clearer by denying the
contrary. 4 A fourth reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still another form. 6–7 The same reason
as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition, in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the fourth
reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion.
1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth, prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works. 4 They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings. 5 They looked especially in history for the chain of causes and effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend.—Lecky, The Political Value of History.
1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came
to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the
successive phases of national growth, prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and
of art; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the
rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being became the
subject of their works. 4 They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings. 5 They looked
especially in history for the chain of causes and effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology of
nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the
conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend.—Lecky, The Political Value of History.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer; the new conception of history defined. 3 The definition expanded. 4 The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented: another element in the new conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an important consequence of the new conception of history.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer; the new conception of history defined. 3 The
definition expanded. 4 The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented: another element in the new
conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an important consequence of the new conception of history.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold
together the details that follow.
The breeze served us admirably.
@@ -74,7 +125,8 @@ The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its
subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned.
At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.
@@ -82,9 +134,10 @@ He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The
break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.
### Rule 10. Use the active voice.
## Rule 10. Use the active voice
The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:
@@ -94,68 +147,94 @@ This is much better than
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting “by me,”
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting
“by me,”
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember this visit?
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember
this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently
convenient and sometimes necessary.
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the
tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these
examples, determine which voice is to be used.
As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Gold was not allowed to be exported. | It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited). |
| He has been proved to have been seen entering the building. | It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building. |
- **Original:** Gold was not allowed to be exported.
- **Revision:** It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited).
In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first.
- **Original:** He has been proved to have been seen entering the building.
- **Revision:** It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence.
In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of
the first.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A survey of this region was made in 1900. | This region was surveyed in 1900. |
| Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected. | The army was rapidly mobilized. |
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to
the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence.
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------- |
| A survey of this region was made in 1900. | This region was surveyed in 1900. |
| Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected. | The army was rapidly mobilized. |
| Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. | These reports cannot be confirmed. |
Compare the _sentence,_ “The export of gold was prohibited,” in which the predicate “was prohibited” expresses something not implied in “export.”
Compare the _sentence,_ “The export of gold was prohibited,” in which the predicate “was prohibited” expresses something
not implied in “export.”
The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as *there is*, or *could be heard*.
The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally
concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively
and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as _there is_, or _could be
heard_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. | Dead leaves covered the ground. |
| The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard. | Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily. |
| The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired. | Failing health compelled him to leave college. |
| It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had. | He soon repented his words. |
- **Original:** There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground.
- **Revision:** Dead leaves covered the ground.
### Rule 11. Put statements in positive form.
- **Original:** The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard.
- **Revision:** Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word *not* as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
- **Original:** The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired.
- **Revision:** Failing health compelled him to leave college.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He was not very often on time. | He usually came late. |
| He did not think that studying Latin was much use. | He thought the study of Latin useless. |
| The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. | The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. |
- **Original:** It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had.
- **Revision:** He soon repented his words.
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention.
## Rule 11. Put statements in positive form
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word *not*. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word _not_ as a means of
denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| not honest | dishonest |
| not important | trifling |
| did not remember | forgot |
| did not pay any attention to | ignored |
- **Original:** He was not very often on time.
- **Revision:** He usually came late.
- **Original:** He did not think that studying Latin was much use.
- **Revision:** He thought the study of Latin useless.
- **Original:** The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very
admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works.
- **Revision:** The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca
insignificant.
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a
guess at the writer's intention.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word _not_. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is
dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express
even a negative in positive form.
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------- | ---------- |
| not honest | dishonest |
| not important | trifling |
| did not remember | forgot |
| did not pay any attention to | ignored |
| did not have much confidence in | distrusted |
The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:
@@ -164,21 +243,29 @@ Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.
Negative words other than *not* are usually strong:
Negative words other than _not_ are usually strong:
The sun never sets upon the British flag.
### Rule 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.
## Rule 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language
Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A period of unfavorable weather set in. | It rained every day for a week. |
| He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. | He grinned as he pocketed the coin. |
| There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration. | All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating. |
- **Original:** A period of unfavorable weather set in.
- **Revision:** It rained every day for a week.
If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from My Last Duchess,
- **Original:** He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward.
- **Revision:** He grinned as he pocketed the coin.
- **Original:** There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive
of great exhilaration.
- **Revision:** All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating.
If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of
arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out
how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant
definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for
instance, the lines from My Last Duchess,
Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,
@@ -202,197 +289,308 @@ Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.
These words call up pictures. Recall how in The Bishop Orders his Tomb in St. Praxed's Church “the Renaissance spirit—its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin,” to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.
These words call up pictures. Recall how in The Bishop Orders his Tomb in St. Praxed's Church “the Renaissance
spirit—its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin,” to
quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.
Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene.
Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins
and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle
we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of
the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as
well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that
the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene.
In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.
In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is
dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.
“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.”
“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we
do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to
ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or
reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In
doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can
be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.”
Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:
Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the
sentences:
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe. | In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. |
- **Original:** In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the
regulations of their penal code will be severe.
- **Revision:** In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by
hanging, burning, and the rack.
### Rule 13. Omit needless words.
## Rule 13. Omit needless words
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for
the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not
that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but
that he make every word tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| the question as to whether | whether (the question whether) |
| there is no doubt but that | no doubt (doubtless) |
| used for fuel purposes | used for fuel |
| he is a man who | he |
| in a hasty manner | hastily |
| this is a subject which | this subject |
| His story is a strange one. | His story is strange. |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------- | ------------------------------ |
| the question as to whether | whether (the question whether) |
| there is no doubt but that | no doubt (doubtless) |
| used for fuel purposes | used for fuel |
| he is a man who | he |
| in a hasty manner | hastily |
| this is a subject which | this subject |
| His story is a strange one. | His story is strange. |
In especial the expression *the fact that* should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.
In especial the expression _the fact that_ should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| owing to the fact that | since (because) |
| in spite of the fact that | though (although) |
| call your attention to the fact that | remind you (notify you) |
| I was unaware of the fact that | I was unaware that (did not know) |
| the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure |
| the fact that I had arrived | my arrival |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------ | --------------------------------- |
| owing to the fact that | since (because) |
| in spite of the fact that | though (although) |
| call your attention to the fact that | remind you (notify you) |
| I was unaware of the fact that | I was unaware that (did not know) |
| the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure |
| the fact that I had arrived | my arrival |
See also under *case*, *character*, *nature*, *system* in Chapter V.
See also under _case_, _character_, _nature_, _system_ in Chapter V.
*Who is*, *which was*, and the like are often superfluous.
_Who is_, _which was_, and the like are often superfluous.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------- |
| His brother, who is a member of the same firm | His brother, a member of the same firm |
| Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle | Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle |
| Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle | Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle |
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the
examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences
or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words.) | Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words.) |
| There were several less important courses, but these were the most important, and although they did not come every day, they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move would be. (43 words.) | These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at least often enough to keep one under constant strain. (21 words.) |
- **Original:** Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that
this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth
murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words.)
- **Revision:** Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by
murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words.)
### Rule 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences
- **Original:** There were several less important courses, but these were the most important, and although they did not
come every day, they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move
would be. (43 words.)
- **Revision:** These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at least often enough to keep one under
constant strain. (21 words.)
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious.
## Rule 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences
An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives *and*, *but*, *so*, and less frequently, *who*, *which*, *when*, *where*, and *while*, these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the
second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see under
Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious.
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.
An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives _and_,
_but_, _so_, and less frequently, _who_, _which_, _when_, _where_, and _while_, these last in non-restrictive senses
(see under Rule 3).
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward
Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself
to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest
aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually
hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with
their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in
any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.
### Rule 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to
remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic
sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations
of the thought.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.
## Rule 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form
The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule _9_. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be
outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and
function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's
Prayer.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. | Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. |
The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of
his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form.
For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule _9_. But apart from this, he should follow the
principle of parallel construction.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.
- **Original:** Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed.
- **Revision:** Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose
one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and
abided by it.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese | The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese |
| In spring, summer, or in winter | In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) |
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before
the first term or else be repeated before each term.
Correlative expressions (*both, and*; *not, but*; *not only, but also*; *either, or*; *first, second, third*; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.
- **Original:** The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese
- **Revision:** The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. | The ceremony was both long and tedious. |
| A time not for words, but action. | A time not for words, but for action. |
| Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. | You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. |
| My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. | My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. |
- **Original:** In spring, summer, or in winter
- **Revision:** In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter)
Correlative expressions (_both, and_; _not, but_; _not only, but also_; _either, or_; _first, second, third_; and the
like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such
combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations
of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike
constructions.
- **Original:** It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.
- **Revision:** The ceremony was both long and tedious.
- **Original:** A time not for words, but action.
- **Revision:** A time not for words, but for action.
- **Original:** Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will.
- **Revision:** You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.
- **Original:** My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional.
- **Revision:** My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional.
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write
twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is
imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each
group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.
### Rule 16. Keep related words together.
## Rule 16. Keep related words together
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore,
so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those
which are not so related.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be
transferred to the beginning.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives a minute description of this church. | In the fifth book of The Excursion, Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church. |
| Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel. | By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel. |
- **Original:** Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives a minute description of this church.
- **Revision:** In the fifth book of The Excursion, Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church.
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).
- **Original:** Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel.
- **Revision:** By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel.
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause.
Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an
expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means
of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).
The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its antecedent.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| There was a look in his eye that boded mischief. | In his eye was a look that boded mischief. |
| He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine. | He published in Harper's Magazine three articles about his adventures in Spain. |
| This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889. | This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President in 1889. |
- **Original:** There was a look in his eye that boded mischief.
- **Revision:** In his eye was a look that boded mischief.
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.
- **Original:** He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine.
- **Revision:** He published in Harper's Magazine three articles about his adventures in Spain.
- **Original:** This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President
in 1889.
- **Revision:** This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President
in 1889.
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause
ambiguity.
The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged. | A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act. |
| — | A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act. |
| The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who | William Henry Harrison's grandson, who |
- **Original:** A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged.
- **Revision:** A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act.
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.
- **Original:** —
- **Revision:** A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act.
- **Original:** The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who
- **Revision:** William Henry Harrison's grandson, who
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can
arise.
The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs
Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.
Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they
should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| All the members were not present. | Not all the members were present. |
| He only found two mistakes. | He found only two mistakes. |
| Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia” at eight P. M. | On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia.” The public is invited. |
- **Original:** All the members were not present.
- **Revision:** Not all the members were present.
### Rule 17. In summaries, keep to one tense.
- **Original:** He only found two mistakes.
- **Revision:** He found only two mistakes.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
- **Original:** Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited,
on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia” at eight P. M.
- **Revision:** On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on “My
Experiences in Mesopotamia.” The public is invited.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.
## Rule 17. In summaries, keep to one tense
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or
novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present
tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her
father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday
night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the
non-delivery of the letter.
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains
unchanged.
The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense
to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as “he said,” “he stated,” “the speaker added,” “the speaker then went on to say,” “the author also thinks,” or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the
writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as “he said,” “he stated,” “the speaker added,” “the speaker then
went on to say,” “the author also thinks,” or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that
what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for
children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or
interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to
devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may
cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by
evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works,
he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at
establishing general conclusions.
### Rule 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
## Rule 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end
The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.
The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is
usually the end.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. | Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. |
| This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. | Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors. |
- **Original:** Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.
- **Revision:** Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the *new* element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.
- **Original:** This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.
- **Revision:** Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the _new_
element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.
The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at
the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the
achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to
devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may
become emphatic when placed first.
Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often
seem, at first sight, like works of nature.
A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,
Great kings worshipped at his shrine,
the emphasis upon *kings* arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.
the emphasis upon _kings_ arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject
of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a
sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.
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## IV. A Few Matters of Form
# IV. A Few Matters of Form
**Headings.** Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.
**Headings.** Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding
pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.
**Numerals.** Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.
**Numerals.** Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be
appropriate.
August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)
@@ -12,25 +14,32 @@ Chapter XII
352nd Infantry
**Parentheses.** A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
**Parentheses.** A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis,
exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself,
except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of
parenthesis.)
**Quotations.** Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.
**Quotations.** Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation
marks.
The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.”
Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.
Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation
marks.
[](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "34")I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come.”
[](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "34")I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is
a lively sense of benefits to come.”
Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in
quotation marks.
Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:
@@ -50,9 +59,13 @@ He lives far from the madding crowd.
The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.
**References.** In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
**References.** In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full
forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not
in the body of the sentence. Omit the words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when referring by
only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)
In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in
the sentence)
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).
@@ -60,7 +73,10 @@ After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).
Othello II.iii. 264–267, III.iii. 155–161.
**Syllabication.** If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a [](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "35") single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:
**Syllabication.** If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole
word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a
[](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "35") single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a
long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:
(a) Divide the word according to its formation:
@@ -68,7 +84,8 @@ know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des
(b) Divide “on the vowel:”
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three
divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;
(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:
@@ -80,10 +97,15 @@ treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).
The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:
for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.
for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion;
sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.
The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.
**Titles.** For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or _The_ from titles when you place the possessive before them.
**Titles.** For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of
editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized
initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing
for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or _The_ from titles when you place the possessive
before them.
The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.
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## V. Words And Expressions Commonly Misused
# V. Words And Expressions Commonly Misused
(Some of the forms here listed, as *like I did*, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as *case*, *factor*, *feature*, *interesting*, *one of the most*, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.)
(Some of the forms here listed, as _like I did_, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their
defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as _case_,
_factor_, _feature_, _interesting_, _one of the most_, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves
into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express
accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the
trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of
inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting
one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in
others under Rules 12 and 13.)
**All right.** Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words.
**All right.** Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses
better avoided. Always written as two words.
**As good or better than.** Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| ----------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------- |
| My opinion is as good or better than his. | My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better). |
**As to whether.** *Whether* is sufficient; see under Rule 13.
**As to whether.** _Whether_ is sufficient; see under Rule 13.
**Bid.** Takes the infinitive without *to*. The past tense in the sense, _“ordered,”_ is *bade*.
**Bid.** Takes the infinitive without _to_. The past tense in the sense, _“ordered,”_ is _bade_.
**But.** Unnecessary after *doubt* and *help*.
**But.** Unnecessary after _doubt_ and _help_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| I have no doubt but that | I have no doubt that |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------ | ----------------------------- |
| I have no doubt but that | I have no doubt that |
| He could not help see but that | He could not help seeing that |
The too frequent use of *but* as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with *but* can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with *although*, as illustrated under Rule 4.
The too frequent use of _but_ as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with
_but_ can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with _although_, as illustrated under Rule 4.
Particularly awkward is the following of one *but* by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.
Particularly awkward is the following of one _but_ by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a
reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million men. | America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million men. |
- **Original:** America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had
created an army of four million men.
- **Revision:** America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had
created an army of four million men.
**Can.** Means *am (is, are) able*. Not to be used as a substitute for *may*.
**Can.** Means _am (is, are) able_. Not to be used as a substitute for _may_.
**Case.** The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word: “instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs.” In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.
**Case.** The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word: “instance of a thing's occurring; usual
state of affairs.” In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. | Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. |
| It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. | Few mistakes have been made. |
| Original | Revision |
| ----------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------- |
| In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. | Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. |
| It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. | Few mistakes have been made. |
See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68–71, and Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing, pp. 103–106.
**Certainly.** Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use *very*, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.
**Certainly.** Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use _very_, to intensify any and every statement. A
mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.
**Character.** Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------- | ------------ |
| Acts of a hostile character | Hostile acts |
**Claim, vb.** With object-noun, means *lay claim to*. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: “He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for *declare*, *maintain*, or *charge*.
**Claim, vb.** With object-noun, means _lay claim to_. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly
involved: “He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be better.) Not to be
used as a substitute for _declare_, _maintain_, or _charge_.
**Clever.** This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.
**Compare.** To *compare to* is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to *compare with* is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.
**Compare.** To _compare to_ is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different
order; to _compare with_ is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order.
Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British
Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.
**Consider.** Not followed by *as* when it means “believe to be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,” where “considered” means “examined” or “discussed.”
**Consider.** Not followed by _as_ when it means “believe to be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The
lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,” where “considered” means “examined” or
“discussed.”
**Data.** A plural, like *phenomena* and *strata*.
**Data.** A plural, like _phenomena_ and _strata_.
These data were tabulated.
**Dependable.** A needless substitute for *reliable*, *trustworthy*.
**Dependable.** A needless substitute for _reliable_, _trustworthy_.
**Different than.** Not permissible. Substitute *different from*, *other than*, or *unlike*.
**Different than.** Not permissible. Substitute _different from_, _other than_, or _unlike_.
**Divided into.** Not to be misused for *composed of*. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.
**Divided into.** Not to be misused for _composed of_. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are
divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.
**Don't.** Contraction of *do not*. The contraction of *does not* is *doesn't*.
**Don't.** Contraction of _do not_. The contraction of _does not_ is _doesn't_.
**Due to.** Incorrectly used for *through*, *because of*, or *owing to*, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game, due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”
**Due to.** Incorrectly used for _through_, _because of_, or _owing to_, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game,
due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is due to
Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”
**Folk.** A collective noun, equivalent to *people*. Use the singular form only.
**Folk.** A collective noun, equivalent to _people_. Use the singular form only.
**Effect.** As noun, means *result*; as verb, means *_to_ bring about*, *accomplish* (not to be confused with *affect*, which means “to influence”).
**Effect.** As noun, means _result_; as verb, means _*to* bring about_, _accomplish_ (not to be confused with _affect_,
which means “to influence”).
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental
effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was
produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
**Etc.** Equivalent to *and the rest*, *and so forth*, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.
**Etc.** Equivalent to _and the rest_, _and so forth_, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient,
that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it
represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.
At the end of a list introduced by *such as*, *for example*, or any similar expression, *etc.* is incorrect.
At the end of a list introduced by _such as_, _for example_, or any similar expression, _etc._ is incorrect.
**Fact.** Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they _may be_, are not properly facts.
**Fact.** Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a
particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as
that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however
incontestable they _may be_, are not properly facts.
On the formula *the fact that*, see under Rule 13.
On the formula _the fact that_, see under Rule 13.
**Factor.** A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.
**Factor.** A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct
and idiomatic.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. | He won the match by being better trained. |
| Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. | Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles. |
- **Original:** His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match.
- **Revision:** He won the match by being better trained.
**Feature.** Another hackneyed word; like *factor* it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.
- **Original:** Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles.
- **Revision:** Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. | (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.) |
**Feature.** Another hackneyed word; like _factor_ it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.
As a verb, in the advertising sense of *offer as a special attraction*, to be avoided.
- **Original:** A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A.
- **Revision:** (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been
given, to tell how she sang.)
**Fix.** Colloquial in America for *arrange*, *prepare*, *mend*. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, *fasten*, *make firm or immovable*, etc.
As a verb, in the advertising sense of _offer as a special attraction_, to be avoided.
**Get.** The colloquial *have got* for *have* should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is *got*.
**Fix.** Colloquial in America for _arrange_, _prepare_, _mend_. In writing restrict it to its literary senses,
_fasten_, _make firm or immovable_, etc.
**Get.** The colloquial _have got_ for _have_ should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is
_got_.
**He is a man who.** A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He is a man who is very ambitious. | He is very ambitious. |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------ |
| He is a man who is very ambitious. | He is very ambitious. |
| Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. | I have always wanted to visit Spain. |
**Help.** See under **But**.
**However.** In the meaning *nevertheless*, not to come first in its sentence or clause.
**However.** In the meaning _nevertheless_, not to come first in its sentence or clause.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. | The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp. |
- **Original:** The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp.
- **Revision:** The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp.
When *however* comes first, it means *in whatever way* or *to whatever extent*.
When _however_ comes first, it means _in whatever way_ or _to whatever extent_.
However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.
**Interesting.** Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so.
**Interesting.** Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about
to tell is interesting, make it so.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| An interesting story is told of | (Tell the story without preamble.) |
| In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he | Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America |
- **Original:** An interesting story is told of
- **Revision:** (Tell the story without preamble.)
**Kind of.** Not to be used as a substitute for *rather* (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for *something like* (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of *sort of*.
- **Original:** In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he
- **Revision:** Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America
**Less.** Should not be misused for *fewer*.
**Kind of.** Not to be used as a substitute for _rather_ (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for
_something like_ (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that
kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of _sort of_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
**Less.** Should not be misused for _fewer_.
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------- |
| He had less men than in the previous campaign | He had fewer men than in the previous campaign |
*Less* refers to quantity, *fewer* to number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however, correct to say, “The signers of the petition were less than a hundred,” where the round number *a hundred* is something like a collective noun, and *less* is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.
_Less_ refers to quantity, _fewer_ to number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as
mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however, correct to
say, “The signers of the petition were less than a hundred,” where the round number _a hundred_ is something like a
collective noun, and _less_ is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.
**Like.** Not to be misused for *as*. *Like* governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is *as*.
**Like.** Not to be misused for _as_. _Like_ governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word
is _as_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------------ | ---------------------------------------- |
| We spent the evening like in the old days. | We spent the evening as in the old days. |
| He thought like I did. | He thought as I did (like me). |
| He thought like I did. | He thought as I did (like me). |
**Line, along these lines.** *Line* in the sense of *course of procedure*, *conduct*, *thought*, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase *along these lines*, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.
**Line, along these lines.** _Line_ in the sense of _course of procedure_, _conduct_, _thought_, is allowable, but has
been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase _along these lines_, that a writer who aims at freshness or
originality had better discard it entirely.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. | Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. |
| He is studying along the line of French literature. | He is studying French literature. |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------- |
| Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. | Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. |
| He is studying along the line of French literature. | He is studying French literature. |
**Literal, literally.** Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A literal flood of abuse. | A flood of abuse. |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------- | ------------------------------------- |
| A literal flood of abuse. | A flood of abuse. |
| Literally dead with fatigue | Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired) |
**Lose out.** Meant to be more emphatic than *lose*, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of *try out*, *win out*, *sign up*, *register up*. With a number of verbs, *out* and *up* form idiomatic combinations: *find out*, *run out*, *turn out*, *cheer up*, *dry up*, *make up*, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. *Lose out* is not.
**Lose out.** Meant to be more emphatic than _lose_, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds
true of _try out_, _win out_, _sign up_, _register up_. With a number of verbs, _out_ and _up_ form idiomatic
combinations: _find out_, _run out_, _turn out_, _cheer up_, _dry up_, _make up_, and others, each distinguishable in
meaning from the simple verb. _Lose out_ is not.
**Most.** Not to be used for *almost*.
**Most.** Not to be used for _almost_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Most everybody | Almost everybody |
| Original | Revision |
| ----------------- | ------------------- |
| Most everybody | Almost everybody |
| Most all the time | Almost all the time |
**Nature.** Often simply redundant, used like *character*.
**Nature.** Often simply redundant, used like _character_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| -------------------------- | ------------ |
| Acts of a hostile _nature_ | Hostile acts |
Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of nature;” “poems about nature.” Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of nature;” “poems about nature.” Unless more specific statements
follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked
wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
**Near by.** Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of *close by* and *hard by* seems to justify it. *Near*, or *near at hand*, is as good, if not better.
**Near by.** Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of _close by_ and _hard by_
seems to justify it. _Near_, or _near at hand_, is as good, if not better.
Not to be used as an adjective; use *neighboring*.
Not to be used as an adjective; use _neighboring_.
**Oftentimes, ofttimes.** Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is *often*.
**Oftentimes, ofttimes.** Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is _often_.
**One hundred and one.** Retain the *and* in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.
**One hundred and one.** Retain the _and_ in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of
English prose from Old English times.
**One of the most.** Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.
**One of the most.** Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting
developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is
nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.
A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject.
A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the
relative is the subject.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| ----------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------ |
| One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem. | One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem. |
**Participle for verbal noun.**
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Do you mind me asking a question? | Do you mind my asking a question? |
| There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise. | There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise. |
- **Original:** Do you mind me asking a question?
- **Revision:** Do you mind my asking a question?
In the left-hand column, *asking* and *accepting* are present participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns (gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical.
- **Original:** There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise.
- **Revision:** There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise.
As the authors of The King's English point out, there are sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not called for.
In the left-hand column, _asking_ and _accepting_ are present participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal
nouns (gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is
easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting. In
this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical.
As the authors of The King's English point out, there are sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which
the possessive is not called for.
I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.
In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written,
In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning
would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written,
I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure.
By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side.
In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.
In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun,
and the construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute
for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary | If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter |
| There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company. | There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company. |
- **Original:** In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary
- **Revision:** If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter
**People.** *The people* is a political term, not to be confused with *the public*. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.
- **Original:** There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company.
- **Revision:** There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company.
**Phase.** Means a stage of transition or development: “the phases of the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be used for *aspect* or *topic*.
**People.** _The people_ is a political term, not to be confused with _the public_. From the people comes political
support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
**Phase.** Means a stage of transition or development: “the phases of the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be used for
_aspect_ or _topic_.
| Original | Revision |
| ---------------------------- | -------------------------------- |
| Another phase of the subject | Another point (another question) |
**Possess.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for *have* or *own*.
**Possess.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for _have_ or _own_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He possessed great courage. | He had great courage (was very brave). |
| He was the fortunate possessor of | He owned |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------------- | -------------------------------------- |
| He possessed great courage. | He had great courage (was very brave). |
| He was the fortunate possessor of | He owned |
**Prove.** The past participle is *proved*.
**Prove.** The past participle is _proved_.
**Respective, respectively.** These words may usually be omitted with advantage.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. | Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. |
| The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. | The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings. |
- **Original:** Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors.
- **Revision:** Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors.
In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use *respectively*, but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects.
- **Original:** The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively.
- **Revision:** The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings.
**Shall, Will.** The future tense requires *shall* for the first person, *will* for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is *I shall*; *I will* expresses his determination or his consent.
In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use _respectively_, but it should not
appear in writing on ordinary subjects.
**Shall, Will.** The future tense requires _shall_ for the first person, _will_ for the second and third. The formula to
express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is _I shall_; _I will_ expresses his determination or
his consent.
**Should.** See under **Would**.
**So.** Avoid, in writing, the use of *so* as an intensifier: “so good;” “so warm;” “so delightful.”
**So.** Avoid, in writing, the use of _so_ as an intensifier: “so good;” “so warm;” “so delightful.”
On the use of *so* to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
On the use of _so_ to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
**Sort of.** See under **Kind of**.
**Split Infinitive.** There is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between *to* and the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers.
**Split Infinitive.** There is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between _to_ and
the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------- | --------------------- |
| To diligently inquire | To inquire diligently |
**State.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for *say*, *remark*. Restrict it to the sense of *express fully or clearly*, as, “He refused to state his objections.”
**State.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for _say_, _remark_. Restrict it to the sense of _express fully or
clearly_, as, “He refused to state his objections.”
**Student Body.** A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word *students*.
**Student Body.** A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word _students_.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A member of the student body | A student |
| Popular with the student body | Liked by the students |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------ | -------------------------------- |
| A member of the student body | A student |
| Popular with the student body | Liked by the students |
| The student body passed resolutions. | The students passed resolutions. |
**System.** Frequently used without need.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| --------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------- |
| Dayton has adopted the commission system of _government._ | Dayton has adopted government by commission. |
| The dormitory system | Dormitories |
| The dormitory system | Dormitories |
**Thanking You in Advance.** This sounds as if the writer meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you again.” In making your request, write, “Will you please,” or “I shall be obliged,” and if anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later.
**Thanking You in Advance.** This sounds as if the writer meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you again.”
In making your request, write, “Will you please,” or “I shall be obliged,” and if anything further seems necessary write
a letter of acknowledgment later.
**They.** A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as *each*, *each one*, *everybody*, *every one*, *many a man*, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent *anybody*, *any one*, *somebody*, *some one*, the intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or she,” or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, “A friend of mine told me that they, etc.”
**They.** A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as
_each_, _each one_, _everybody_, _every one_, _many a man_, which, though implying more than one person, requires the
pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with
the antecedent _anybody_, _any one_, _somebody_, _some one_, the intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or
she,” or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, “A friend of mine told me that they,
etc.”
Use *he* with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine.
Use _he_ with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine.
**Very.** Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves.
**Viewpoint.** Write *point of view*, but do not misuse this, as many do, for *view* or *opinion*.
**Viewpoint.** Write _point of view_, but do not misuse this, as many do, for _view_ or _opinion_.
**While.** Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for *and*, *but*, and *although*. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for *and* or *but*, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.
**While.** Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for _and_, _but_, and _although_. Many writers use it frequently as
a substitute for _and_ or _but_, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two
connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. | The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. |
- **Original:** The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to
manufacturing.
- **Revision:** The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to
manufacturing.
Its use as a virtual equivalent of *although* is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.
Its use as a virtual equivalent of _although_ is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.
While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.
@@ -306,43 +388,46 @@ I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause.
Compare:
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. | Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. |
- **Original:** While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly.
- **Revision:** Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly.
The paraphrase,
The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly,
shows why the use of *while* is incorrect.
shows why the use of _while_ is incorrect.
In general, the writer will do well to use *while* only with strict literalness, in the sense of *during the time that*.
In general, the writer will do well to use _while_ only with strict literalness, in the sense of _during the time that_.
**Whom.** Often incorrectly used for *who* before *he said* or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.
**Whom.** Often incorrectly used for _who_ before _he said_ or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a
following verb.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His brother, whom he said would send him the money | His brother, who he said would send him the money |
| The man whom he thought was his friend | The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend) |
- **Original:** His brother, whom he said would send him the money
- **Revision:** His brother, who he said would send him the money
**Worth while.** Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with *not*) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: “Is it worth while to telegraph?”
- **Original:** The man whom he thought was his friend
- **Revision:** The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend)
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His books are not worth while. | His books are not worth reading (are not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading; are worthless). |
**Worth while.** Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with _not_) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to
actions: “Is it worth while to telegraph?”
The use of *worth while* before a noun (“a worth while story”) is indefensible.
- **Original:** His books are not worth while.
- **Revision:** His books are not worth reading (are not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading; are
worthless).
**Would.** A conditional statement in the first person requires *should*, not *would*.
The use of _worth while_ before a noun (“a worth while story”) is indefensible.
**Would.** A conditional statement in the first person requires _should_, not _would_.
I should not have succeeded without his help.
The equivalent of *shall* in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is *should*, not *would*.
The equivalent of _shall_ in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is _should_, not _would_.
He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.
To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without *would*, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.
To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without _would_, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity,
more emphatic.
| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Original | Revision |
| ------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------- |
| Once a year he would visit the old mansion. | Once a year he visited the old mansion. |
.agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely/signs-of-ai-writing.md
+950 -334
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File diff suppressed because it is too large Load Diff
.github/instructions/golang.instructions.md
+2
View File
@@ -2,4 +2,6 @@
applyTo: "**/*.go"
---
# Go instructions
Refer to `skills/golang/SKILL.md` for the full Go coding standards.
.github/instructions/markdown.instructions.md
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View File
@@ -2,4 +2,6 @@
applyTo: "**/*.md, **/*.mdx"
---
# Markdown instructions
Refer to `skills/markdown/SKILL.md` for the full Markdown formatting standards.
.github/instructions/powershell.instructions.md
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@@ -2,4 +2,6 @@
applyTo: "**/*.ps1, **/*.psm1, **/*.psd1"
---
# PowerShell instructions
Refer to `skills/powershell/SKILL.md` for the full PowerShell coding standards.
.markdownlint-cli2.yaml
-7
View File
@@ -9,10 +9,3 @@ ignores:
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- .github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
- .agents/skills/ast-grep
- .agents/skills/code-changes
- .agents/skills/conventional-commit
- .agents/skills/golang
- .agents/skills/markdown
- .agents/skills/powershell
- .agents/skills/writing-clearly-and-concisely
- .github/instructions/*
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lockfile_version: '1'
generated_at: '2026-08-03T05:16:36.052971+00:00'
generated_at: '2026-08-03T11:20:07.846712+00:00'
apm_version: 0.26.0
dependencies:
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name: agentic-golang
host: github.com
resolved_commit: 856a1f17ca750b4266e509c32873f8c89c70c369
resolved_commit: 0fb21d044eadf675f78605dd30ab8f5c43a04cc1
version: 1.0.0
virtual_path: instructions/golang.instructions.md
is_virtual: true
@@ -34,13 +34,13 @@ dependencies:
- .claude/rules/golang.md
- .github/instructions/golang.instructions.md
deployed_file_hashes:
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resolved_commit: 0fb21d044eadf675f78605dd30ab8f5c43a04cc1
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@@ -48,13 +48,13 @@ dependencies:
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- .github/instructions/markdown.instructions.md
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resolved_commit: 0fb21d044eadf675f78605dd30ab8f5c43a04cc1
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virtual_path: instructions/powershell.instructions.md
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- .github/instructions/powershell.instructions.md
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resolved_commit: 0fb21d044eadf675f78605dd30ab8f5c43a04cc1
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is_virtual: true
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- .claude/skills/code-changes/references/verify.md
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host: github.com
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